Pre-Socratic Philosophers Essay

Pre-Socratic is the expression norm all toldy used to describe those classical conceiveers who lived and wrote amid 600 and 400 B.C. It was the Pre-Socratics who attempted to find universal isms which would explain the earthy land from its rail lines to mans place in it. Although Socrates died in 399 B.C., the barrier Pre-Socratic indicates not so untold a chronological limit, that quite an an outlook or range of interests, an outlook attacked by both Protagoras (a Sophist) and Socrates, because rude(a) philosophy was worthless when comp atomic number 18d with the search for the good purport.To give the Pre-Socratic thinkers their full receivable would require an article of encyclopedic scope. Given that, I hurl heady to list a sum of sites on individual Pre-Socratic thinkers.Anaximander1.Life and SourcesThe biography of write Greek philosophy starts with Anaximander of Miletus in Asia Minor, a fellow-citizen of Thales. He was the firstly who dargond to write a treatise in prose, which has been c eached tradition exclusivelyy On Nature. This keep back has been lost, although it believably was available in the program library of the Lyceum at the successions of Aristotle and his substitution Theophrastus. It is utter that Apollodorus, in the second hundred BCE, stumbled upon a copy of it, by chance in the famous library of Alexandria. Recently, evidence has appe atomic number 18d that it was part of the collection of the library of Taormina in Sicily, where a fragment of a catalogue has been found, on which Anaximanders name send word be read. Only atomic number 53 fragment of the book has come down to us, quoted by Simplicius (after Theophrastus), in the sixth century AD.It is whitethornhap the most famous and most discussed phrase in the history of philosophy.We in any(prenominal) case k in a flash very little of Anaximanders life. He is say to permit led a mission that founded a colony called Apollonia on the edge of the Black Sea. He likewise probably introduced the gnomon (a perpendicular sun-dial) into Greece and erected cardinal in Sparta. So he cypherms to stool been a ofttimes-traveled man, which is not astonishing, as the Milesians were cognise to be audacious sailors. It is also reported that he displayed solemn discretion and wore pompous garments.Most of the information on Anaximander comes from Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus, whose book on the history of philosophy was used, excerpted, and quoted by numerous reversal authors, the alleged(prenominal) doxographers, out front it was lost. Sometimes, in these texts articu recentlys or expressions appear that can with some sure amour be ascribedto Anaximander himself. Relatively many testimonies, approximately 1 third of them, confine to do with astronomical and cosmological questions. Hermann Diels and Walter Kranz support edited the doxography (A) and the existing texts (B) of the pre-Socratic philosophers in Die Frag mente der Vorsokratiker, Berlin 1951-19526. (A quotation handle DK 12A17 means Diels/Kranz, Anaximander, doxographical report no.17).2. The timeless as PrincipleAccording to Aristotle and Theophrastus, the first Greek philosophers were looking for the origin or teaching (the Greek word arch has both conveys) of all things. Anaximander is said to fox de vergeine it with the Boundless or the Unlimited (Greek apeiron, that is, that which has no boundaries). Already in ancient times, it is complained that Anaximander did not explain what he meant by the Boundless. More recently, authors eat up disputed whether the Boundless should be interpreted as spatially or temporarily without limits, or perhaps as that which has no qualifications, or as that which is inexhaustible. Some scholars adjudge charge defended the meaning that which is not experienced, by relating the Greek word apeiron not to peras (boundary, limit), that to perao (to experience, to comprehend).The suggestion, however, is to a greater extent or less irresistible that Greek philosophy, by making the Boundless into the principle of all things, has started on a high level of abstraction. On the opposite hand, some have pointed out that this use of apeiron is atypical for Greek thought, which was sedulous with limit, symmetry and harmony. The Pythagoreans placed the unbounded (the apeiron) on the list of negative things, and for Aristotle, too, perfection became aligned with limit (Greek peras), and thus apeiron with imperfection. Therefore, some authors suspect eastern (Iranian) beguile on Anaximanders ideas. Anaximenes (d. 528 BCE)According to the surviving sources on his life, Anaximenes flourished in the mid(prenominal) 6th century BCE and died rough 528. He is the third philosopher of the Milesian School of philosophy, so named because uniform Thales and Anaximander, Anaximenes was an inhabitant of Miletus, in Ionia (ancient Greece). Theophrastus notes that Anaximenes was an asso ciate, and possibly a student, of Anaximanders.Anaximenes is best know for his doctrine that communication channel is the source of all things. In this agency, he differed with his predecessors ilk Thales, who held that water is the source of all things, and Anaximander, who thought that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff.2. Doctrine of ChangeGiven his doctrine that all things are serene of air, Anaximenes suggested an interesting qualitative account of indwelling changeAir differs in marrow in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, part when it is condensed it becomes wind, whence cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then rock candys. Everything else comes from these. (DK13A5) Influence on afterwards PhilosophyAnaximenes hypothesis of successive change of offspring by rarefaction and ejection seat was influential in later theories. It is true by Heraclitus (DK22B31), and criticized by Parme nides (DK28B8.23-24, 47-48). Anaximenes normal system of how the materials of the existence arise is adopted by Anaxagoras(DK59B16), even though the latter has a very contrary theory of content. Both Melissus (DK30B8.3) and Plato (Timaeus 49b-c) see Anaximenes theory as providing a common-sense explanation of change. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the basis of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the central sentiment in a theory of diseases. By providing cosmological accounts with a theory of change, Anaximenes separated them from the realm of mere speculation and made them, at least in conception, scientific theories capable of testing.Thales of Miletus (c. 620 BCE c. 546 BCE)The ancient Greek philosopher Thales was natural in Miletus in Greek Ionia. Aristotle, the major source for Thaless philosophy and science, identified Thales as the first person to investigate the basic principles, the question of the originating substances of look and, in that respectfore, as the founder of the take aimtime of natural philosophy. Thales was interested in almost everything, investigating almost all areas of noesis, philosophy, history, science, mathematics, engineering, geography, and politics. Heproposed theories to explain many of the events of nature, the primary coil substance, the support of the earth, and the cause of change. Thales was frequently involved in the bothers of astronomy and provided a number of explanations of cosmological events which traditionally involved supernatural entities.His questioning advent to the hexing of heavenly phenomena was the receivening of Greek astronomy. Thales hypotheses were new and bold, and in firing phenomena from godly intervention, he paved the way of life towards scientific endeavor. He founded the Milesian school of natural philosophy, developed the scientific method, and initiated the first western enligh ten dollar billment. A number of anecdotes is cl osely connected to Thales investigations of the cosmos. When considered in association with his hypotheses they take on added meaning and are most enlightening. Thales was highly esteemed in ancient times, and a letter cited by Diogenes Laertius, and purporting to be from Anaximenes to Pythagoras, advised that all our discourse should begin with a reference to Thales (D.L. II.4).1. The Writings of ThalesDoubts have always existed almost whether Thales wrote anything, save a number of ancient reports credit him with writings. Simplicius (Diels, Dox. p. 475) specifically attri only whened to Thales authorship of the so-called Nautical Star-guide. Diogenes Laertius raised doubts about authenticity, provided wrote that according to others Thales wrote nonentity that two treatises, one On the Solstice and one On the Equinox (D.L. I.23). Lobon of argus pheasant asserted that the writings of Thales amounted to two hundred lines (D.L. I.34), and Plutarch associated Thales with opinion s and accounts expressed in poesy (Plutarch, De Pyth. or. 18. 402 E). Hesychius, recorded that Thales wrote on celestial matters in epic verse, on the equinox, and much else (DK, 11A2). Callimachus credited Thales with the sage advice that navigators should navigate by Ursa Minor (D.L. I.23), advice which may have been in writing.Diogenes mentions a poet, Choerilus, who declared that Thales was the first to maintain the immortality of the sense (D.L. I.24), and in De Anima, Aristotles rowing from what is recorded about Thales, indicate that Aristotle was take oning from a written source. Diogenes recorded thatThales seems by some accounts to have been the first to shoot astronomy, the first to predict eclipses of the sun and to fix the solstices so Eudemus in his recital of Astronomy. It was this which gained for him the admiration of Xenophanes and Herodotus and the notice of Heraclitus and Democritus (D.L. I.23). Eudemus who wrote a archives of Astronomy, and also on geometr y and theology, essentialiness be considered as a possible source for the hypotheses of Thales. The information provided by Diogenes is the sort of material which he would have intromitd in his history of Astronomy, and it is possible that the titles On the Solstice, and On the Equinox were available to Eudemus.Xenophanes, Herodotus, Heraclitus and Democritus were familiar with the work of Thales, and may have had a work by Thales available to them. A solstice is an astronomical event that happens twice each year when the Sun reaches its highest location in the sky as seen from the North or South Pole. The word solstice is derived from the Latin sol (sun) and sistere (to stand still), because at the solstices, the Sun stands still in declination that is, the seasonal movement of the Suns path (as seen from Earth) comes to a stop before reversing direction. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons.In many cultures the solstices mark all the beg inning or the midpoint of winter and summer. The term solstice can also be used in a broader sense, as the date (day) when this occurs. The day of the solstice is either the longest day of the year (in summer) or the shortest day of the year (in winter) for any place on Earth, because the length of time between sunrise and sunset on that day is the y wee maximal or minimum for that place. Proclus recorded that Thales was followed by a colossal wealthiness of geometers, most of whom remain as honoured label. They commence with Mamercus, who was a pupil of Thales, and include Hippias of Elis, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Philippus of Mende, Euclid, and Eudemus, a friend of Aristotle, who wrote histories of arithmetic, of astronomy, and of geometry, and many lesser known names. It is possible that writings of Thales were available to some of these men.Any records which Thales may have kept would have been an advantage in his own work. This is especially true of mathem atics, of the dates and times unflinching when fixing the solstices, the positions of stars, and infinancial transactions. It is difficult to believe that Thales would not have written down the information he had ga in that locationd in his travels, in particular the geometry he investigated in Egypt and his measuring of the height of the pyramid, his hypotheses about nature, and the cause of change.Proclus adjudge Thales as the discoverer of a number of specific theorems (A Commentary on the First Book of Euclids Elements 65. 8-9 250. 16-17). This suggests that Eudemus, Procluss source had before him the written records of Thaless discoveries. How did Thales prove his theorems if not in written words and sketches? The workings On the Solstice, On the Equinox, which were attributed to Thales (D.L. I.23), and the Nautical Star guide, to which Simplicius referred, may have been sources for the History of Astronomy of Eudemus (D.L. I.23). Pythagoras (c.570c.495 BCE)The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Pythagoras moldiness have been one of the worlds longest persons, but he wrote zip, and it is hard to say how much of the doctrine we know as Pythagorean is due to the founder of the society and how much is later outgrowth. It is also hard to say how much of what we are told about the life of Pythagoras is trustworthy for a mass of legend ga in that respectd around his name at an early date. Sometimes he is represented as a man of science, and sometimes as a preacher of cryptic doctrines, and we might be tempted to study one or other of those characters as alone historical. The accuracy is that there is no need to reject either of the traditional views.The union of mathematical genius and mysticism is common enough. in the first place from Samos, Pythagoras founded at Kroton (in southern Italy) a society which was at once a religious community and a scientific school. Such a organic structure was bound to excite jealousy and mistrust, and we hear of many struggles. Pythagoras himself had to flee from Kroton to Metapontion, where he died.It is stated that he was a disciple of Anaximander, his astronomy was the natural teaching of Anaximanders. Also, the way in which the Pythagorean geometry developed also bears witness to its celestial latitude from that of Miletos. The great problem at this date was the duplication of the square, a problem which gave rise to the theorem of the square on the hypotenuse, commonlyknown still as the Pythagorean proposition (Euclid, I. 47). If we were right in assuming that Thales worked with the old 345 triangle, the connection is obvious.Pythagoras argued that there are three kinds of men, clean as there are three classes of strangers who come to the Olympic Games. The worst consists of those who come to buy and sell, and next above them are those who come to compete. vanquish of all are those who simply come to look on. Men may be classified accordingly as lovers of wisdom, lovers of honor, and l overs of gain. That seems to imply the doctrine of the tripartite someone, which is also attributed to the early Pythagoreans on good authority, though it is common now to ascribe it to Plato. There are, however, clear references to it before his time, and it adjudges much better with the everyday outlook of the Pythagoreans.The comparison of human life to a gathering like the Games was often repeated in later days. Pythagoras also taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration, which we may have learned from the contemporary Orphics. Xenophanes made frolic of him for pretending to recognize the voice of a departed friend in the howls of a beaten dog. Empedocles seems to be referring to him when he speaks of a man who could call up what happened ten or twenty generations before. It was on this that the doctrine of Recollection, which plays so great a part in Plato, was based. The things we perceive with the senses, Plato argues, remind us of things we knew when the so ul was out of the body and could perceive reality directly.There is more problem about the cosmology of Pythagoras. Hardly any school ever professed much(prenominal) reverence for its founders authority as the Pythagoreans. The Master said so was their watchword. On the other hand, few schools have risen so much capacity for progress and for adapting themselves to new conditions. Pythagoras started from the cosmical system of Anaximenes. Aristotle tells us that the Pythagoreans represented the world as inhaling air form the boundless mass outside it, and this air is identified with the unlimited. When, however, we come to the process by which things are developed out of the unlimited, we observe a great change.We hear nothing more of separating out or even of rarefaction and condensation. Instead of that we have the theory that what gives form to theUnlimited is the Limit. That is the great contribution of Pythagoras to philosophy, and we mustiness try to understand it. Now the function of the Limit is usually illustrated from the arts of music and medicine, and we have seen how significant these two arts were for Pythagoreans, so it is natural to infer that the several(prenominal)ize to its meaning is to be found in them.It may be interpreted as reliable(p) that Pythagoras himself discovered the numerical ratios which determine the concordant intervals of the musical comedy scale. Similar to musical intervals, in medicine there are opposites, much(prenominal) as the hot and the cold, the wet and the ironical, and it is the business of the physician to produce a proper blend of these in the human body. In a long-familiar recallage of Platos Phaedo (86 b) we are told by Simmias that the Pythagoreans held the body to be arrange like an instrument to a certain pitch, hot and cold, wet and dry taking the place of high and low in music. Musical adjust and health are alike means arising from the application of Limit to the Unlimited. It was natural for Pythagoras to look for something of the same kind in the world at large. in brief stated, the doctrine of Pythagoras was that all things are numbers. In certain fundamental cases, the early Pythagoreans represented numbers and explained their properties by means of dots arranged in certain enciphers or patterns. Zenos ParadoxesIn the fifth century B.C.E., Zeno of Elea offered arguments that led to conclusions contradicting what we all know from our physical experiencethat contrabandists break out, that arrows fly, and that there are many opposite things in the world. The arguments were paradoxes for the ancient Greek philosophers. Because most of the arguments turn crucially on the notion that space and time are infinitely divisiblefor example, that for any distance there is such a thing as half(prenominal) that distance, and so onZeno was the first person in history to show that the concept of infinity is problematical.In his Achilles Paradox, Achilles races to catch a muff leder runnerfor example, a tortoise that is crawling away from him. The tortoise has a head start, so if Achilles hopes to overwhelm it, he must run at least to the place where the tortoise soon is, but by the time he arrives there, it will have crawled to a new place, so then Achilles must run to this new place, but thetortoise meanwhile will have crawled on, and so forth. Achilles will never catch the tortoise, says Zeno. Therefore, good springing shows that fast runners never can catch slow ones. So much the worse for the engage that motion really occurs, Zeno says in defense of his mentor Parmenides who had argued that motion is an illusion.Although practically no scholars today would agree with Zenos conclusion, we can not escape the paradox by jumping up from our seat and chasing down a tortoise, nor by saying Achilles should run to some other target place ahead of where the tortoise is at the moment. What is indispensable is an analysis of Zenos own argument that does n ot get us embroiled in new paradoxes nor impoverish our mathematics and science.This article explains his ten known paradoxes and considers the treatments that have been offered. Zeno imitation distances and durations can be divided into an unquestionable infinity (what we now call a transfinite infinity) of indivisible parts, and he assumed these are too many for the runner to complete. Aristotles treatment said Zeno should have assumed there are only potential infinities, and that uncomplete places nor times divide into indivisible parts. His treatment became the generally accepted final result until the late 19th century. The current standard treatment says Zeno was right to close that a runners path contains an actual infinity of parts, but he was mistaken to assume this is too many.This treatment employs the apparatus of tartar which has proved its indispens faculty for the development of modern science. In the twentieth century it finally became clear that disallowing ac tual infinities, as Aristotle wanted, hampers the growth of set theory and ultimately of mathematics and physics. This standard treatment took hundreds of long time to perfect and was due to the flexibility of rationals who were willing to replace old theories and their concepts with more fruitful ones, disrespect the damage through with(predicate) to common sense and our naive intuitions. The article ends by exploring newer treatments of the paradoxesand related paradoxes such as Thomsons Lamp Paradoxthat were developed since the 1950s.Parmenides (b. 510 BCE)Parmenides was a Greek philosopher and poet, born of an illustrious family about BCE. 510, at Elea in cut Italy, and is is the chief representative of the Eleatic philosophy. He was held in high esteem by his fellow-citizens for his excellent legislation, to which they ascribed the prosperity and wealth of the town. He was also admired for his symbolic life. A Parmenidean life was proverbial among the Greeks. He is commonl y represented as a disciple of Xenophanes. Parmenides wrote after Heraclitus, and in conscious opposition to him, addicted the evident allusion to Hericlitus for whom it is and is not, the same and not the same, and all things travel in opposite directions (fr. 6, 8). Little more is known of his biography than that he stopped at Athens on a pilgrimage in his sixty-fifth year, and there became acquainted with the youthful Socrates. That must have been in the middle of the fifth century BCE., or shortly after it.Parmenides broke with the older dome prose tradition by writing in hexameter verse. His didactic poem, called On Nature, survives in fragments, although the Proem (or introductory discourse) of the work has been preserved. Parmenides was a young man when he wrote it, for the goddess who reveals the impartiality to him addresses him as youth. The work is considered inartistic. Its Hesiodic style was appropriate for the cosmogony he describes in the second part, but is unsui ted to the arid dialectic of the first. Parmenides was no born poet, and we must ask what led him to take this new departure. The example of Xenophanes poetic writings is not a complete explanation for the poetry of Parmenides is as unlike that of Xenophanes as it well can be, and his style is more like Hesiod and the Orphics. In the Proem Parmenides describes his ascent to the home of the goddess who is supposed to speak the remainder of the verses this is a reflexion of the conventional ascents into heaven which were almost as common as descents into hell in the apocalyptic literature of those days.The Proem opens with Parmenides representing himself as borne on a chariot and attended by the Sunmaidens who have quitted the Halls of night to guide him on his journey. They pass along the highway till they come to the Gate of Night and Day, which is locked and barred. The key is in the keeping of Dike (Right), the Avenger, who is persuaded to unlock it by the Sunmaidens.They pass in through the gate and are now, of course, in the realms of Day. The goal of the journey is the palace of a goddess who welcomes Parmenides and instructs him in the two ways, that of Truth and the deceptive way of view, in which is no truth at all. All this is described without passion and in a slenderly conventional manner, so it must be interpreted by the canons of the apocalyptic style. It is clearly meant to indicate that Parmenides had been converted, that he had passed from computer geological fault (night) to truth (day), and the Two Ways must represent his former error and the truth which is now revealed to him.There is reason to believe that the Way of Belief is an account of Pythagorean cosmology. In any case, it is surely impossible to regard it as anything else than a rendering of some error. The goddess says so in words that cannot be explained away. Further, this erroneous belief is not the ordinary mans view of the world, but an elaborate system, which seems to b e a natural development the Ionian cosmology on certain lines, and there is no other system but the Pythagorean that fulfils this requirement. To this it has been objected that Parmenides would not have taken the disorder to expound in detail a system he had altogether rejected, but that is to mistake the character of the apocalyptic convention. It is not Parmenides, but the goddess, that expounds the system, and it is for this reason that the beliefs described are said to be those of mortals.Now a description of the ascent of the soul would be quite incomplete without a mental picture of the region from which it had escaped. The goddess must reveal the two ways at the parting of which Parmenides stands, and bid him choose the better. The rise of mathematics in the Pythagorean school had revealed for the first time the power of thought. To the mathematician of all men it is the same thing that can be thought and that can be, and this is the principle from which Parmenides starts. It is impossible to think what is not, and it is impossible for what cannot be thought to be. The great question, Is it or is it not? is because equivalent to the question, Can it be thought or not?In any case, the work thus has two divisions. The first discusses the truth, and the second the world of illusion that is, the world of the senses and the erroneous opinions of mankind founded upon them. In his opinion truthlies in the perception that existence is, and error in the idea that non-existence also can be. Nothing can have real existence but what is conceivable consequently to be imagined and to be able to exist are the same thing, and there is no development. The essence of what is conceivable is incapable of development, imperishable, immutable, unbounded, and indivisible. What is heterogeneous and mutable, all development, is a delusive phantom. Perception is thought directed to the pure essence of being the phenomenal world is a delusion, and the opinions formed concer ning it can only be improbable.Parmenides goes on to consider in the light of this principle the consequences of saying that anything is. In the first place, it cannot have come into being. If it had, it must have arisen from nothing or from something. It cannot have arisen from nothing for there is no nothing. It cannot have arisen from something for here is nothing else than what is. Nor can anything else besides itself come into being for there can be no empty space in which it could do so. Is it or is it not? If it is, then it is now, all at once. In this way Parmenides refutes all accounts of the origin of the world. Ex nihilo nihil fit.Further, if it is, it simply is, and it cannot be more or less. There is, therefore, as much of it in one place as in another. (That makes rarefaction and condensation impossible.) it is continuous and indivisible for there is nothing but itself which could prevent its parts being in contact with one another. It is therefore full, a continuous i ndivisible plenum. (That is directed against the Pythagorean theory of a discontinuous reality.) Further, it is immovable. If it moved, it must move into empty space, and empty space is nothing, and there is no nothing.Also it is finite and spherical for it cannot be in one direction any more than in another, and the sphere is the only figure of which this can be said. What is, therefore a finite, spherical, motionless, continuous plenum, and there is nothing beyond it. Coming into being and ceasing to be are mere names, and so is motion, and still more color and the like. They are not even thoughts for a thought must be a thought of something that is, and none of these can be.Such is the conclusion to which the view of the real as a single body inevitably leads, and there is no escape from it. The matter of our physical text-books is just the real of Parmenides and, unless we can find room for something else than matter, we are shut up into his account of reality. No subsequent sys tem could abide to ignore this, but of course it was impossible to acquiesce permanently in a doctrine like that of Parmenides. It deprives the world we know of all claim to existence, and reduces it to something which is hardly even an illusion. If we are to give an intelligible account of the world, we must certainly introduce motion again somehow. That can never be taken for granted any more, as it was by the early cosmologists we must attempt to explain it if we are to escape from the conclusions of Parmenides. Heraclitus (fl. c.500 BCE)A Greek philosopher of the late 6th century BCE, Heraclitus criticizes his predecessors and contemporaries for their failure to see the unity in experience. He claims to announce an everlasting Word (Logos) according to which all things are one, in some sense. Opposites are necessary for life, but they are integrate in a system of balanced exchanges. The world itself consists of a virtue-like discussion of elements, symbolized by fire. Thus t he world is not to be identified with any particular substance, but rather with an ongoing process governed by a law of change. The underlying law of nature also manifests itself as a moral law for human beings. Heraclitus is the first Western philosopher to go beyond physical theory in search of metaphysical foundations and moral applications. Anaxagoras (c.500428 BCE)Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was an important Presocratic natural philosopher and scientist who lived and taught in Athens for approximately thirty years. He gained notoriety for his materialistic views, particularly his contention that the sun was a furious rock. This led to charges of impiety, and he was sentenced to death by the Athenian court. He avoided this penalty by leaving Athens, and he spent his remaining years in exile. While Anaxagoras proposed theories on a variety of subjects, he is most notable for two theories. First, he speculated that in the physical world everything contains a circle of everything else. His observation of how nutrition plant life in animals led him to conclude that in order for the food an animal eats to turn into bone,hair, flesh, and so forth, it must already contain all of those constituents within it. The second theory of significance is Anaxagoras postulation of Mind (Nous) as the initiating and governing principle of the cosmos. Democritus (460370 BCE)Democritus was born at Abdera, about 460 BCE, although according to some 490. His bring was from a noble family and of great wealth, and contributed largely towards the entertainment of the army of Xerxes on his return to Asia. As a reward for this service the Persian monarch gave and other Abderites presents and left among them several Magi. Democritus, according to Diogenes Laertius, was instructed by these Magi in astronomy and theology. After the death of his father he traveled in search of wisdom, and devoted his inheritance to this purpose, amounting to one hundred talents. He is said to have vis ited Egypt, Ethiopia, Persia, and India. Whether, in the course of his travels, he visited Athens or studied under Anaxagoras is uncertain. During some part of his life he was instructed in Pythagoreanism, and was a disciple of Leucippus. After several years of traveling, Democritus returned to Abdera, with no means of subsistence.His brother Damosis, however, took him in. According to the law of Abdera, whoever wasted his birthright would be deprived of the rites of burial. Democritus, hoping to avoid this disgrace, gave creation lectures. Petronius relates that he was acquainted with the virtues of herbs, plants, and stones, and that he spent his life in making experiments upon natural bodies. He acquired fame with his knowledge of natural phenomena, and predicted changes in the weather. He used this ability to make nation believe that he could predict future events. They not only viewed him as something more than mortal, but even proposed to put him in control of their univers e affairs. He preferred a contemplative to an active life, and therefore declined these public honors and passed the remainder of his days in solitude.Credit cannot be given to the tale that Democritus spent his leisure hours in chemical researches after the philosophers stone the dream of a later age or to the story of his dialogue with Hippocrates concerning Democrituss supposed madness, as based on spurious letters. Democritus has been commonly known as The Laughing Philosopher, and it is gravely relatedby Seneca that he never appeared in public with out expressing his contempt of human follies while laughing. Accordingly, we find that among his fellow-citizens he had the name of the mocker. He died at more than a hundred years of age. It is said that from then on he spent his days and nights in caverns and sepulchers, and that, in order to master his intellectual faculties, he blinded himself with burning glass. This story, however, is discredited by the writers who mention it thus far as they say he wrote books and dissected animals, neither of which could be done well without eyes.Democritus expanded the atomic theory of Leucippus. He maintained the impossibility of dividing things ad infinitum. From the difficulty of assigning a beginning of time, he argued the infinity of existing nature, of void space, and of motion. He supposed the atoms, which are originally similar, to be impenetrable and have a density proportionate to their volume. All motions are the result of active and passive affection. He drew a eminence between primary motion and its secondary effects, that is, impulse and reaction. This is the basis of the law of necessity, by which all things in nature are ruled. The worlds which we see with all their properties of immensity, resemblance, and dissimilitude result from the endless multiplicity of falling atoms. The human soul consists of globular atoms of fire, which impart movement to the body.Maintaining his atomic theory througho ut, Democritus introduced the hypothesis of images or idols (eidola), a kind of emanation from external objects, which make an impression on our senses, and from the influence of which he deduced sensation (aesthesis) and thought (noesis). He distinguished between a rude, imperfect, and therefore false perception and a true one. In the same manner, consistent with this theory, he accounted for the popular notions of Deity partly through our incapacity to understand fully the phenomena of which we are witnesses, and partly from the impressions communicated by certain beings (eidola) of enormous stature and resembling the human figure which inhabit the air. We know these from dreams and the causes of divination. He carried his theory into practical philosophy also, laying down that happiness consisted in an even temperament. From this he deduced his moral principles and prudential maxims. It was from Democritus thatEpicurus borrowed the principal features of his philosophy. Empedocles (c.492432 BCE)Empedocles (of Acagras in Sicily) was a philosopher and poet one of the most important of the philosophers working before Socrates (the Presocratics), and a poet of swell ability and of great influence upon later poets such as Lucretius. His works On Nature and Purifications (whether they are two poems or only one see below) exist in more than 150 fragments. He has been regarded diversely as a materialist physicist, a shamanic magician, a mystical theologian, a healer, a democratic politician, a living god, and a fraud. To him is attributed the invention of the four-element theory of matter (earth, air, fire, and water), one of the earliest theories of particle physics, put forward seemingly to turn in the phenomenal world from the static monism of Parmenides.Empedocles world-view is of a cosmic cycle of eternal change, growth and decay, in which two personified cosmic forces, Love and Strife, engage in an eternal battle for supremacy. In psychology and ethics Emp edocles was a confederate of Pythagoras, hence a believer in the transmigration of souls, and hence also a vegetarian. He claims to be a daimn, a divine or potentially divine being, who, having been banished from the immortals gods for three times countless years for committing the sin of meat-eating(prenominal) and forced to suffer successive reincarnations in an purificatory journey through the different orders of nature and elements of the cosmos, has now achieved the most perfect of human states and will be reborn as an immortal. He also claims seemingly magical powers including the ability to revive the dead and to control the winds and rains.